Paragraph Ex Machina: The Nuts and Bolts of a Strong Paragraph
Witty operating the paragraph machine
I’ve encountered far too many students who have been led to believe all essays are five paragraphs–an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. I’m going to table a full discussion of the essay for now and focus on the paragraph. What is it? What makes a good one?
Let’s begin with what a paragraph is not–or at least what it ought not aspire to be.
Topic Sentence +
Example +
This example shows…
That’s not a paragraph; it’s a checklist. Let’s address the topic sentence myth first. Since the 1980s, composition research has consistently shown that most paragraphs in real, published writing do not begin with topic sentences. Studies by D’Angelo (1986, 1990), Faigley & Selzer (1984), Huckin (1983), and others demonstrate that professional writers often delay, imply, or distribute a controlling idea rather than placing it in the first sentence.
So what do paragraphs begin with? The unsatisfying answer is “It depends.” On what? You may reasonably ask. How a paragraph begins depends on how it fits into the structure of the entire essay, and since there are any number of ways to write an essay, generalizing isn’t advisable here, but I’m going to do it anyway. A paragraph could begin with, for example, a transition from the previous paragraph, a commentary on the previous paragraph, a metacommentary on the essay as a whole, or a question, even a question that combines all of these strategies, as the one opening this paragraph does. What is important is not that it begins with a particular kind of sentence but that it sets up a clear expectation to be fulfilled, an expectation that emerges from the context of the discourse already generated. In a bit, we’ll look at some example paragraphs. For now, let’s move on to the example that so typically follows the topic sentence.
In the conventional setup, the example is supposed to provide the evidence that clinches the claim in the topic sentence. Once again, composition research has demonstrated that while student writers rely heavily on concrete examples, expert writers rely more on reasoning, pattern‑naming, and conceptual explanation. Scholars such as Hillocks (1986), Bereiter & Scardamalia (1987), and Andrews (1995, 2009) argue that examples are the least sophisticated form of support and dominate school writing only because they are easy to teach and easy to grade. Bereiter and Scardamalia put it thus: Novice writers “knowledge‑tell” (examples) while expert writers “knowledge‑transform” (analysis).
If the classic example is not the ubiquitous rhetorical strategy composition classrooms suggest it is, then it stands to reason that the “this example shows” is not quite the interpretive powerhouse we’ve been led to believe it is. Hillocks (1986) argues that dropping examples is a novice move, not real analysis, and that novice writers rely on examples + paraphrase because they lack the cognitive structures for the more sophisticated generalization, abstraction, causal reasoning, and warranting. For Hillocks, “This example shows…” is a novice strategy because it merely repeats the content of the example instead of transforming it.
Let’s consider an alternative to the classic paragraph template. Admittedly, the schema below may at first seem only a small improvement on the conventionally taught paragraph, but a bit of explication and interpretation will perhaps prove its worth. What’s more, all improvement is welcome.
Expectation to be fulfilled
Reason
Evidence/Support
Insight/Significance
At least the above demands the writer attempt more sophisticated jobs. Whereas a topic sentence merely announces what a paragraph is about, typically in the form of an observation or inarguable claim, an expectation requires that writers not only assess their readers’ needs at a particular point in the discourse but also fulfill the expectation. That’s two fairly sophisticated jobs.
Notice that the next move in the improved paragraph design suggests writers supply a reason for the expectation, not just dump an example of the aboutness. The reason simultaneously signals the relevance of the expectation both to the reader and, equally importantly, to the writer. One of the several jobs performed with this move is the now you know I know why I want you to know something. The writer is a tour guide who does more than point and shout information; the improved writer explains why it’s important to take this particular tour in this particular fashion.
Instead of merely repeating the topic sentences after a This shows opener, the writer of the improved paragraph is tasked with explaining the significance of the evidence/support. While we’re here, note that the evidence/support could take many, varied, and multiple forms. Below are just a few:
generalization
abstraction
causal reasoning
warranting
I’m going to save further discussion of these topics for a blog post on triangulation (promise). For now, let’s dissect a paragraph from this very essay:
The expectation: So what do paragraphs begin with? The unsatisfying answer is “It depends.”
The reason: On what? You may reasonably ask. How a paragraph begins depends on how it fits into the structure of the entire essay, and since there are any number of ways to write an essay, generalizing isn’t advisable here, but I’m going to do it anyway.
The evidence/support: A paragraph could begin with, for example, a transition from the previous paragraph, a commentary on the previous paragraph, a metacommentary on the essay as a whole, or a question, even a question that combines all of these strategies, as the one opening this paragraph does.
The insight/significance: What is important is not that it begins with a particular kind of sentence but that it sets up a clear expectation to be fulfilled, an expectation that emerges from the context of the discourse already generated. In a bit, we’ll look at some example paragraphs. For now, let’s move on to the example that so typically follows the topic sentence.
Now, for a little before-and-after with high school writing samples.
Before: Conventional (Topic Sentence + Example + “This shows…”)
Many students struggle with procrastination because they don’t know how to start their work. For example, a student might have a paper due in two days but spend hours scrolling on their phone instead of writing. This example shows that procrastination often results from a lack of clear starting strategies. Without knowing how to begin, students avoid the task entirely, which leads to stress and rushed work.
After: Improved (Expectation → Reason → Evidence → Insight)
Why do so many students procrastinate, even when they care about their work? One reason is that starting a task requires cognitive effort that feels overwhelming when the path forward is unclear. A student with a paper due might spend hours scrolling on their phone—not because they’re lazy, but because they haven’t built a reliable strategy for initiating the writing process. Procrastination, in this case, isn’t avoidance of work—it’s avoidance of ambiguity. The moment a student learns how to break the task into manageable steps, the resistance often dissolves.
Analysis: What the After Does Differently
Expectation: A question that sets up a problem to be explored
Reason: A causal explanation, not just a claim
Evidence: Same example, but reframed as a pattern, not a one-off
Insight: A conceptual turn that reframes procrastination as ambiguity avoidance
Here’s another before-and-after, this one from the domain of literature.
Before: Conventional (Topic Sentence + Example + “This shows…”)
The theme of isolation is important in Of Mice and Men. For example, Crooks lives alone in the stable and is separated from the other men because of his race. This example shows that Steinbeck uses Crooks’s living situation to highlight the loneliness experienced by marginalized characters. Isolation is a major theme throughout the novel, and Crooks’s example helps readers understand its emotional impact.
After: Improved (Expectation → Reason → Evidence → Insight)
Steinbeck’s portrayal of Crooks depicts isolation as both a physical and social condition. Crooks’s separation from the other men isn’t just about race—it’s about the structure of exclusion built into the ranch itself. His room in the stable, his limited interactions, and his guarded personality all point to a system that keeps certain people apart. What emerges isn’t just a portrait of loneliness, but a critique of how isolation is manufactured and maintained. Steinbeck doesn’t merely show us a lonely man; he shows us how loneliness is engineered.
Analysis: What the After Does Differently
Expectation: A claim that invites deeper exploration, not just a theme label
Reason: Explains the mechanism behind the claim (form of exclusion)
Evidence: Same example, but unpacked as a system, not a detail
Insight: A conceptual turn — isolation as engineered, not incidental
Writing is difficult. There’s no need to make it more difficult by encouraging students to adopt inferior templates that give them very little to do. What’s more discouraging for a writer staring at a blank screen and taunting cursor than little to do? (For more on the myth of writer’s block see the post “Cursing the Cursor”). Student writers need jobs that challenge them and a handy little machine for overcoming those challenges. The paragraph isn’t a random chain of sentences; it's a cognitive tool whose operations students can internalize to improve not only their writing but their thinking.
References
Andrews, R. (1995). Teaching and learning argument. Cassell.
Andrews, R. (2009). Argumentation in higher education: Improving practice through theory and research. Routledge.
Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
D’Angelo, F. J. (1986). A conceptual theory of rhetoric. Cambridge University Press.
D’Angelo, F. J. (1990). The topic sentence reconsidered. College Composition and Communication, 41(4), 431–441.
Faigley, L., & Selzer, J. (1984). Good reasons: Researching and teaching effective argument. College English, 46(1), 63–70.
Hillocks, G. (1986). Research on written composition: New directions for teaching. National Conference on Research in English.
Huckin, T. N. (1983). Signs of structure: Topic sentences in professional writing. College Composition and Communication, 34(1), 59–68.
Kuhn, D. (1991). The skills of argument. Cambridge University Press.
Sommers, N. (1980). Revision strategies of student writers and experienced adult writers. College Composition and Communication, 31(4), 378–388.
